US History

Postwar United States (1945 to early 1970s)

Latino Americans

Migration

This collection uses primary sources to explore Puerto Rican migration to the United States.

A map of Puerto Rico, including graphics about agriculture and economy, from *World Geo-Graphic Atlas*, 1953.

An airline map of the United States and Puerto Rico showing principal non-stop routes, 1965.

The Puerto Rican migrations of the 1950s and ’60s were among the first major waves of migration that took place by air travel.

A photograph of Luis Muñoz Marín, governor of Puerto Rico from 1949 to 1965, speaking at the Governors Conference in San Juan, 1959.

At this 1959 meeting of state governors in San Juan, Marín said, “Just as Western Europe is developing a closer economic and a closer political interdependence, based on freedom, so do I believe in the eventual realization of a closer, pragmatic partnership between all the peoples of the Americas.” Marín worked with US authorities to implement Operation Bootstrap policies to encourage American investment and industrialization in Puerto Rico during the 1950s and 1960s.


A report titled *Puerto Rican Farm Workers in Florida*, published by the US Department of Labor in 1954.

A statement, “The Puerto Rican Farm Labor Program,” delivered by Clarence Senior before the National Advisory Committee on Farm Labor, 1959.

A photograph of Puerto Rican girls, New York City, 1950s-1960s.

Excerpts from a 1956 report by the New York City Board of Education, “Who are the Puerto Rican pupils in the New York City public schools?”.

A 1964 article from *Memphis World* titled “Number of Non-Whites in NYC Colleges Told.”

Transcript:

**Number Of Non-Whites
In NYC Colleges Told** 
NEW YORK — (NNPA) 
—The
Board of Higher Education last
week revealed that pupils identified
as "Negro and Puerto Rican" now
make up from 7.4 to 10 per cent
of the enrollment in the City University of New York.

Four senior, colleges, City, Hunter, Brooklyn and Queens; and three
two - year colleges, Staten Island.
Bronx and Queensboro, comprise
the City University System.

Estimates given by the board put
the Negro - Puerto Rican strength
at between 6,300 and 8,600, which,
according to Board Chairman Gustave G. Rosenberg "is undoubtedly
more than any other university
in the country."

A 1962 article from *Memphis World* titled “Union policies restrict minority earning.”

Transcript:

**Union Policies Said To
Restrict Minority Earning** 
NEW YORK 
—The International Ladies Garment Workers Union
came in for some strong criticism
of its practices involving Negro and
Puerto Rican members in testimony here this week before a sub-
committee of the House Committee
on Education and Labor.

Herbert Hill, NAACP labor secretary, declared in his statement to
the subcommittee:
"There are virtually no Negro and
Puerto Rican members in the locals that control access to the well
paid jobs where there is a high
degree of job stability," he said.
He said that for all practical
purposes, locals such as 10, 60 and
89 are "lily white" while Negro
and Puerto Rican workers are
"limited to membership in Local 22
and in the unit known as 60A,"
which he called "the Jim Crow auxiliary of Local 80."

BEST IN INDUSTRY 
The average hourly wage in jobs
within Local 60's jurisdiction pressers) is $5.00 an hour, Mr. Hill
said. Local 60 has an all white
membership, and its jobs are the
best in New York City's garment
industry.

"On the other hand," he added,
"there is 60A which is simply a unit
of Local 60. This is almost entirely
Negro and Puerto Rican. They work
as shipping clerks, push bays and
delivery man. They earn in the
vicinity of $50.00 per week."
ILGWU contracts provide for but
a small amount above the bare
minimum required by law "in the
locals where there is a major concentration of non white workers,'
Hill's statement declared.

Typical jobs in these categories
are floor girls, shipping clerks,
trimmers and sewing machine operators in the low priced dress
field and in the miscellaneous locals.

Mr. Kill concluded that the IL
GWU leadership has simply refused
to adjust to the fact that non-
whites make up an increasingly
large part of New York's population –with heavy concentration in
the lower income categories, the
bulk of the union's constituency.

A postcard from 1986 depicting Lolita Lebrón escorted from the US Capitol after opening fire from the House of Representatives gallery.

Lolita Lebrón was born in Puerto Rico in 1919 and migrated to the New York in 1940. Lebrón was disenchanted by the labor conditions of the garment industry and the prejudice that she faced in America, despite promises of a better future. Lebrón became an advocate for Puerto Rican independence and, in 1954, planned and executed an armed attack against the United States Congress with three other men. Opening fire from the gallery, she shouted, “Viva Puerto Rico libre!" in an act meant to draw international attention to the cause of Puerto Rican independence. Five people were wounded in the shooting and Lebrón was sentenced to fifty years in prison. She was pardoned in 1979 after serving twenty-five years. 

A poster of “Lolita Lebrón, Puerto Rican Freedom Fighter” by Marcos Dimas, 1971.

Lolita Lebrón was born in Puerto Rico in 1919 and migrated to the New York in 1940. Lebrón was disenchanted by the labor conditions of the garment industry and prejudice that she faced in America, despite promises of a better future. Lebrón became an advocate for Puerto Rican independence and, in 1954, planned and executed an armed attack against the United States Congress with three other men. Opening fire from the gallery, she shouted, “Viva Puerto Rico libre!" in an act meant to draw international attention to the cause of Puerto Rican independence. Five people were wounded in the shooting and Lebrón was sentenced to fifty years in prison. She was pardoned in 1979 after serving twenty-five years in prison. 

A photograph of the actress Rita Moreno performing “America” in the 1961 film production of *West Side Story*.

*West Side Story* premiered as a Broadway musical in 1957 and was adapted into a movie in 1961. The story is an adaptation of *Romeo and Juliet* set in an ethnically mixed neighborhood on New York’s West Side. The plot follows young lovers Tony and Maria, caught between two rival gangs, the Puerto Rican Sharks and the white Jets. Rita Moreno, pictured here, played Anita in the film adaptation. Anita was previously played by actress Chita Rivera on Broadway. Rita Moreno was born in Puerto Rico and migrated to New York with her mother in 1936. In this musical number, Anita and other members of the Puerto Rican community sing about the relative benefits of moving to America versus staying in Puerto Rico.


A set of timbales belonging to Tito Puente, a Puerto Rican musician from New York City who popularized Latin jazz, mambo, and salsa, 1990s.

Timbales are a pair of shallow drums, played with drumsticks, that are popular in Latin American dance music. Tito Puente, who owned this set of timbales, was among many musicians who fused Latin music and jazz and popularized Latin American music in America. Puente was born and raised in Spanish Harlem, the area of northeast Manhattan that was home to New York’s Puerto Rican community.


A photograph of Tito Puente and Felipe Luciano, ca. 1970s.

Tito Puente (right) was a Puerto Rican-American musician and Felipe Luciano is the co-founder of the New York chapter of the Young Lords, a Puerto Rican nationalist and civil rights organization that originated in Chicago in the late 1960s.

An article celebrating the achievements of Puerto Rican baseball star Roberto Clemente, May 28, 1960.

Roberto Clemente was born and raised in Puerto Rico, where he began playing baseball professionally at age 17. In 1955, Clemente signed with the Pittsburgh Pirates, where he played for the next seventeen years.

Transcript:

**Pittsburgh Pirates' Sensation 
Roberto Clemente Is Often
Compared With Willie Mays** 
By RUDY CERNKOVICPITTSBURGH —(UPI) 
—Roberto Clemente is often compared
with Willie Mays, but the Pittsburgh Pirate outfielder insists he
has developed his own style.
"Many people tell me I wanna
play like Weelie," the excitable Roberto said. "I no play like Mays.
From little boy up I always play
like thees. I always wanna run fast,
to throw long and heet far."

The Puerto Rican native, who
learned to play baseball by swatting
a tennis ball with a broomstick, is
one of the most exciting players in
the game today.

Clemente was waiting to take his
turn at batting practice at Forbes
Field Friday night when Mays
strolled by.

PLAYERS TALK 
"Hiya, Chico," Mays greeted Clemente.

"I feel good," Weelie," he replied.

Someone asked Mays what he
though of Clemente. Willie grinned.
"Watta ya want me to say, man,
that he's not good? He sure is
good."

Giant manager Bill Rigney was
polled next.

"Clemente is terrific," he said.
Did Rigney think Clemente could
Willie?

"Nobody compares with Willie,"
Rigney replied.

CLEMENTE DISPLACES MAYS 
Mayes came into Pittsburgh as
the National League batting leader Friday night, but a couple of
hours later he was displaced by
Clemente, whose two-out single in
the 12th gave Pittsburgh a 5-4 victory.

Sunday, Clemente scored a run
on Hal Smith's bases-loaded single
in the 11th to make Pittsburgh an
8-7 winner.

Mays got only one single in 13
times at bat during the three game
series while Clemente went 7 for
15 and now paces the majors with
an average of .382, His 34 runs-bat-
ted-in are also tops in both loops.
Clemente" was a track and Held
stars in high school, excelling in
the javelin throw, and the hop-
skip-jump event. 

AIMED FOR OLYMPICS 
"I only 17 when I throw javelin
185 feet," Robert said proudly. "I
was pretty fast in 440 too and I
think I make Olympics someday.
Clemente's skill with the javelin
probably accounts for one of the
best throwing arms in baseball. . .
..Against the Cardinals last week
Clemente threw from deep right
field to Dick Groat, who tagged out
Ken Boyer sliding into second.
"I just keep marvelling at Ro-
berto's great arm and his speed,"
Groat said.

Roughly translated, Clemente's
surname means clemency or mercy.
But Roberto does not show that
virtue when he is at the plate and
on the basepaths.

Questions

1. Based on the [map of Puerto Rico](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/puerto-rican-migration-to-the-us/sources/1141) and information in the atlas, what were the primary economic activities in Puerto Rico in the 1950s? 
2. What does the [airline map](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/puerto-rican-migration-to-the-us/sources/1142) reveal about the most popular destinations from San Juan in 1965? What do these places have in common?
3. Based on the [*Puerto Rican Farm Workers in Florida* report](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/puerto-rican-migration-to-the-us/sources/1144) and the [statement on “The Puerto Rican Farm Labor Program,”](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/puerto-rican-migration-to-the-us/sources/1145) explain in what ways farm labor migration programs were successful. In what ways did this practice make Puerto Rican works vulnerable to economic exploitation? Using the sources, compare the motivations and experiences of urban and rural migrants.
4. Lolita Lebrón is sometimes remembered as a freedom fighter, a revolutionary, or as a terrorist. In what ways does she fit (or not fit) each definition? Based on the design and wording on the [postcard](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/puerto-rican-migration-to-the-us/sources/1150) and the [poster](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/puerto-rican-migration-to-the-us/sources/1151), how do you think the creator of each would label her?
5. Based on the [schools report](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/puerto-rican-migration-to-the-us/sources/1147) and the [*Memphis World* article about colleges](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/puerto-rican-migration-to-the-us/sources/1148), explain how Puerto Rican migration impacted New York’s education system. 
6. Based on Governor Muñoz Marîn’s quotation in the description for the [photo](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/puerto-rican-migration-to-the-us/sources/1143) and the resources about Lolita Lebrón, compare each of their worldviews about Puerto Rico’s relationship with the United States. 
7. Using the [article about Roberto Clemente](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/puerto-rican-migration-to-the-us/sources/1155), explain the significance of Clemente and his success for Puerto Rican communities in the US.

Activity

*West Side Story* is one of the most widely known representations of Puerto Rican culture and identity during the 1950s and 1960s. Watch the film and research its reception within Puerto Rican communities. Using the [photograph of Rita Moreno](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/puerto-rican-migration-to-the-us/sources/1152) and [others from DPLA](http://dp.la/search?utf8=%E2%9C%93&q=%22west+side+story%22), consider the ways in which the film created or reinforced stereotypes about Puerto Rican culture and gender roles. Ask students to consider/write a reflection: How might *West Side Story* have been different if it was written and produced by Puerto Ricans?

Teaching Guide: Exploring Puerto Rican Migration to the US

Resources

1. [Immigration: Puerto Rican/Cuban](http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/immigration/cuban2.html), Library of Congress. 
2. [The Story of US Puerto Ricans, Part 4](http://centropr.hunter.cuny.edu/education/puerto-rican-studies/story-us-puerto-ricans-part-four), The Center for Puerto Rican Studies, Centro, at Hunter College, The City University of New York. 
3. [Latinas in History](http://depthome.brooklyn.cuny.edu/latinashistory/latinashistory.html), an interactive project, Brooklyn College, CUNY. 
4. [An obituary for Lolita Lebron](http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/08/01/AR2010080103400_2.html), *The Washington Post*, 2010.
5. [Latino Americans Timeline](http://www.pbs.org/latino-americans/en/timeline/#y1900), PBS. 

Overview

Puerto Rican migration to the United States exploded in the decades following World War II. Hundreds of thousands of Puerto Rican men, women, and families arrived in US cities and towns, and Puerto Rican communities grew dramatically in places like Philadelphia, Chicago, Boston, Springfield, Massachusetts, and Newark, New Jersey. Eighty-five percent of Puerto Rican migrants during this time settled in New York City, which had included a sizeable Puerto Rican population since since the 1910s.

For much of the early twentieth century, Puerto Rico was an agrarian society that struggled with high unemployment rates and poverty. With the advent of affordable air travel and a boom in industrial jobs in the United States following World War II, many Puerto Ricans moved to the US in pursuit of better economic opportunities. Operation Bootstrap—a series of state-sponsored programs by the US and Puerto Rican governments in the 1940s and ’50s to urbanize, modernize, and industrialize Puerto Rico’s economy through investment and job creation by US companies—also encouraged Puerto Rican migration. As the economy of Puerto Rico shifted from agriculture to industry, Operation Bootstrap included provisions for farm workers to be transported from Puerto Rico to American farms.

Puerto Ricans had the freedom to travel to the United States as citizens but, like immigrants from a foreign country, they faced challenges of adapting to new cultural, social, and economic surroundings. In New York and other cities, Puerto Rican men and women were employed in a range of industries but also encountered language barriers and discrimination based on race and ethnicity. Puerto Rican communities had an important cultural impact on New York and other places across the country by introducing new styles of music and art. Puerto Rican migration to the US slowed during the economic downturn of the 1970s. Today, however, Puerto Rican communities continue to exist across the United States. In recent years, Puerto Rican migration to the US, especially Florida, has increased again in response to the island’s economic crisis and severe debt.

English

Puerto Rican Migration to the US

puerto-rican-migration-us_14_cb19aa49c856df234812cf6849475b14.jpg

Courtesy of Cornell University via ARTstor.

Conzo, Joe, “Tito Puente and Felipe Luciano at Old-Timer's Day,” Digital Public Library of America, https://dp.la/item/cb19aa49c856df234812cf6849475b14.

A photograph of Tito Puente and Felipe Luciano, ca. 1970s.

Cite this item

Tips for Students

Item 14 of 15 in the Primary Source Set Puerto Rican Migration to the US