US History

Postwar United States (1945 to early 1970s)

Social Movements

Native Americans

This collection uses primary sources to explore the American Indian Movement between 1968 and 1978.

An excerpt from a 1970 newsletter from the National Council on Indian Opportunity about federal work to address Indian concerns.

An excerpt from an interview with Earl Livermore about the Indians of All Tribes (IOAT) occupation of Alcatraz, 1970.

In this interview, Earl Livermore discusses the IOAT occupation of Alcatraz Island in the San Francisco Bay, which lasted from November 20, 1969, to June 11, 1971, when it was forcibly ended by the US government. 

A photograph of Vernon Bellecourt, national director of the American Indian Movement, March 12, 1973.

Vernon Bellecourt (WaBun-Inini), a leader in the American Indian Movement, was part of the White Earth Band of Ojibwe. His name means "Man of Dawn.” 

A photograph taken during the AIM takeover and ultimate surrender at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, 1973.

A photograph of Russell Means, surrounded by aides, running to escape federal marshals that had a warrant for his arrest, April 27, 1973. 

Russell Means was a leader of the American Indian Movement charged for events related to the occupation of Wounded Knee.

News footage from the trial of Dennis Banks and Russell Means, indicted on charges related to the Wounded Knee occupation, January 8, 1974.

Charges were ultimately dismissed after more than eight months at trial.


Excerpt from an oral history interview with Ramona Bennett, activist and former chairwoman of the Puyallup Tribe.

Ramona Bennett is a leader from the Puyallup tribe. A pioneering activist on behalf of Indian fishing rights, she co-founded the Survival of American Indians Association in 1964, an organization that helped bring local “fish-ins” to national prominence. Bennett was elected to the Puyallup Tribal Council in 1968, and elected as Tribal Chairwoman in 1971, a position she held until 1978.  In addition to her fishing rights advocacy, she participated in the takeover of the Bureau of Indian Affairs Building in Washington, DC in 1972 and helped take over Tacoma’s Cushman Hospital in 1976.  She also opened doors for women activists by actively fighting attempts during the 1970s to exclude her from National Tribal Chairmen’s Conferences. Much of Bennett’s leadership has focused on issues of social welfare including child welfare, education, and services for women.

An excerpt from the 1976 Senate Judiciary Committee report on revolutionary activities within the American Indian Movement.

A print by artist M. Diaz titled “200 Years of Misery, 1776-1976,” 1976.

A photograph of Native American protesters in Terre Haute, Indiana, on the Longest Walk, May 20, 1978.

The original description reads: “Native Protest March, Terre Haute, May 20: a group of about 350 Indians arrived this afternoon in Terre Haute. Most of them were crowded in cars and pickups, but almost fifty of them were leading the group on foot. They began their 'longest walk' in February from the West coast and intend to arrive in the capital by July 9. They hope this march will draw public attention to a number of pending bills which they believe will undermine their culture.” The Longest Walk was one of the last events formally staged by the American Indian Movement. It was intended to symbolize the historical displacement of Native Americans from their homelands and to protest contemporary conditions in Native American communities.


An American Indian Movement Wounded Knee button, 1990.

The button was used at the American Indian Movement pow-wow at the Minneapolis American Indian Center on December 29, 1990.

A news story about the Wounded Knee protest in honor of its twenty-fifth anniversary, 1998.

An interview with American Indian Movement leader Clyde Bellecourt about voting in Minnesota and national elections, 2000.

A news story about the FBI's position on the 1977 Leonard Peltier case, 2000.

In 1977 Leonard Peltier was convicted and sentenced to two consecutive terms of life imprisonment for first degree murder in the shooting of two FBI agents during a 1975 conflict on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation.


Questions

1. According to the [excerpt from a newsletter](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/the-american-indian-movement-1968-1978/sources/1328), what actions was the federal government taking to address Native American concerns in 1970 through the National Council on Indian Opportunity?
2. What major conditions of Native American life did the American Indian Movement protest in the 1970s? Cite evidence from the sources to support your answer.
3. Consider the [interview with Earl Livermore](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/the-american-indian-movement-1968-1978/sources/1329), the [interview with Ramona Bennett](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/the-american-indian-movement-1968-1978/sources/1334), and the [photograph of Native American protesters in Terre Haute](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/the-american-indian-movement-1968-1978/sources/1337). What strategies for protest and advocacy did American Indian Movement activists use? Who were their audiences? What connections do you see among the actions described in this set?
4. Using the [photograph taken at Wounded Knee](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/the-american-indian-movement-1968-1978/sources/1331), the [photograph of Russell Means](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/the-american-indian-movement-1968-1978/sources/1332), and the [footage from the trial of Dennis Banks and Russell Means](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/the-american-indian-movement-1968-1978/sources/1333), compare and contrast the tactics used by the American Indian Movement with those of other activist groups during the civil rights era.
5. Do a close reading of the [print](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/the-american-indian-movement-1968-1978/sources/1336). What is its central message? How does it relate to the concerns of the American Indian Movement?
6. Describe the perception of the American Indian Movement explained in the [Senate Judiciary Committee report](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/the-american-indian-movement-1968-1978/sources/1335). How did this perception influence federal government response to the American Indian Movement?
7. The [button](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/the-american-indian-movement-1968-1978/sources/1338), the [story about the twenty-fifth anniversary of the Wounded Knee protest](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/the-american-indian-movement-1968-1978/sources/1339), the [interview with Clyde Bellecourt](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/the-american-indian-movement-1968-1978/sources/1340), and the [news story about the Leonard Peltier case](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/the-american-indian-movement-1968-1978/sources/1341) explore the legacy of the American Indian Movement and its protests. What is this legacy? How did perceptions of AIM change over time?

Activity

1. Many of the most prominent leaders of the American Indian Movement were men. Using the [interview with Ramona Bennett](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/the-american-indian-movement-1968-1978/sources/1334) as inspiration, ask students to research and select a female activist from AIM and tell her story in a short paper or presentation. Which issues was she concerned about? What actions did she take? What is the legacy of her contribution to AIM? Female subjects might include Mary Jane Wilson, Wilma Mankiller, or Grace Thorpe.
2. Ask students to listen to the [news story about the Leonard Peltier case](http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/the-american-indian-movement-1968-1978/sources/1341). Instruct them to do further research about him and his case and write a letter to the editor advocating for either releasing him or keeping him in prison to serve out the remainder of his sentence. 

Teaching Guide: Exploring the American Indian Movement

Resources

1. [American Indian Movement (AIM)](http://libguides.mnhs.org/aim), Minnesota Historical Society. 
2. [A Brief History of the American Indian Movement](http://www.aimovement.org/ggc/history.html), American Indian Movement. 
3. Emily Chertoff, “[Occupy Wounded Knee: A 71-Day Siege and a Forgotten Civil Rights Movement](http://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2012/10/occupy-wounded-knee-a-71-day-siege-and-a-forgotten-civil-rights-movement/263998/)”, *The Atlantic*. 


Overview

Founded in July 1968 in Minneapolis, Minnesota, the American Indian Movement (AIM) is an American Indian advocacy group organized to address issues related to sovereignty, leadership, and treaties. Particularly in its early years, AIM also protested racism and civil rights violations against Native Americans. During the 1950s, increasing numbers of American Indians had been forced to move away from reservations and tribal culture because of federal Indian termination policies intended to assimilate them into mainstream American culture. Founders of AIM included Mary Jane Wilson, Dennis Banks, Vernon Bellecourt, Clyde Bellecourt, and George Mitchell, while other activists like Russell Means worked with the organization prominently in the 1970s. 

AIM staged a number of protest actions on historically significant sites of injustice and violence perpetrated by the federal government against Native Americans. These protests included the occupation of Alcatraz Island in 1970, protests at the federal Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1972, the occupation of Wounded Knee on the Pine Ridge Reservation in 1973, and the Longest Walk spiritual march from Alcatraz to Washington, DC to support tribal sovereignty and bring attention to anti-Indian legislation in 1978. AIM continues its work to the present day, speaking out against injustices and working to improve conditions for Native Americans. This primary source set uses documents, photographs, videos, and news stories to tell the story of the first decade of the American Indian Movement.

English

The American Indian Movement, 1968-1978

american-indian-movement_09_40d5e1a840b5855fbb122e0d8538a64b.jpg

Courtesy of University of California Santa Barbara, Special Collections via California Digital Library.

Diaz, M., “200 Years of Misery,” Digital Public Library of America, https://dp.la/item/0aeb208ef5279965018d1412d3395aa1.

A print by artist M. Diaz titled “200 Years of Misery, 1776-1976,” 1976.

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Tips for Students

Item 9 of 14 in the Primary Source Set The American Indian Movement, 1968-1978