US History

Civil War and Reconstruction (1850-1877)

Social Movements

This collection uses primary sources to explore John Brown and his raid on Harper&#39;s Ferry in 1859.

A daguerreotype of John Brown with his hand raised, ca. 1846.

This is the earliest known photograph of abolitionist John Brown. Pioneering African American daguerreotypist and fellow abolitionist Augustus Washington made this portrait.

An illustration of the swivel gun and pike used by the Harper’s Ferry raiders, November 1859.

Before the raid on Harper’s Ferry, John Brown ordered 950 pikes from a Connecticut forgemaster named Charles Blair. Brown intended to issue these inexpensive weapons to his army of slave insurgents. He had the pikes designed in the fashion of a Bowie knife he captured from a pro-slavery Missourian in the mid-1850s.

A print of the engine house occupied by John Brown and his raiders as US Marines attempted to break in, ca. 1859.

This print depicts United States Marines preparing to storm the building where John Brown and his raiders were holding several Harper’s Ferry residents as hostages.

A print depicting Brown’s raiders and hostages in the interior of the engine house before the US Marines break-in, 1859.

In this print, several of Brown’s men lay wounded while others hold civilian hostages. This illustration appeared in *Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper* on November 5, 1859. *Frank Leslie’s* was published weekly beginning in 1855. The newspaper gained popularity as a result of its coverage of John Brown’s raid and other events leading to the Civil War.

An excerpt from John Brown’s address to the court after hearing his guilty verdict, 1859.

After being captured, John Brown was tried for treason and murder. The trial began on October 27 and Brown was found guilty on November 2. Upon hearing his verdict, Brown delivered a statement to the court, including this excerpt. This account comes from “The Raid of John Brown at Harper’s Ferry As I Saw It,” by Rev. Samuel Leech. Twenty-one year old Leech was one of several eyewitnesses to John Brown’s raid who subsequently wrote about what they saw. 

A print showing an encounter between raiders and the militia at the railroad bridge, from *Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper*, 1859.

This print depicting John Brown’s raid appeared in *Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper*, which was published weekly beginning in 1855. The newspaper gained popularity as a result of its coverage of John Brown’s raid and other events leading to the Civil War.

A program for a commemorative town hall meeting held in Concord, Massachusetts following John Brown’s execution on December 2, 1859.

John Brown was executed on December 2, 1859, and many of Brown’s supporters held public meetings to mourn and commemorate his death. One of these meetings took place in Concord, Massachusetts. Residents of Concord, including Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau, gathered at a town hall meeting on the day of John Brown’s execution. This document is a program from that meeting and includes a “Dirge” celebrating Brown’s martyrdom.

An excerpt from a speech given by Edward Everett in Boston, Massachusetts about the political consequences of Brown’s raid, December 1859.

 Edward Everett was the most famous American orator of the mid-nineteenth century. In this speech, delivered at Boston’s Faneuil Hall on December 8, 1859, Everett warns his listeners about the potential side effects of John Brown’s raid.

An excerpt from a sermon preached by George B. Cheever on November 6, 1859, about John Brown’s character.

This excerpt comes from a sermon delivered by George B. Cheever entitled “The Curse of God Against Political Atheism: With Some of the Lessons of the Tragedy at Harper’s Ferry.” Cheever preached this sermon at the Church of the Puritans in New York City on November 6, 1859, and it was published later that same year.

An excerpt from speeches delivered in the US Senate by Senators Clement Clay of Alabama and William Gwin of California, December 13, 1859.

This document contains excerpts from two speeches delivered in the United States Senate on December 13, 1859, eleven days after John Brown’s execution. Senator Clement C. Clay of Alabama gave the first speech (p. 1-2) and Senator William M. Gwin of California gave the second speech (p. 7). Both men address the political fallout of John Brown’s raid. Gwin was born in Tennessee and was a protégé of Andrew Jackson. As a result, he was sympathetic to slaveholders despite representing the non-slaveholding state of California.

The sheet music to “John Brown’s Body,” published in 1902.

“John Brown’s Body,” first sung in Boston in 1861, was a favorite song among Union soldiers during the Civil War.

A sheet of lyrics to “Old John Brown: A Song for Every Southern Man,” ca. 1861.

“Old John Brown: A Song for Every Southern Man,” was written from a southern pro-slavery perspective. The term “Old Ossawattomie Brown” in the song’s chorus refers to John Brown’s abolitionist activism in the Kansas Territory (also known as “Bleeding Kansas”) in the mid-1850s. Note that the word “niggers” appears in the chorus and the word “darkie” appears in the last verse.

A photograph of John Brown’s tombstone in North Elba, New York, ca. 1900.

The names of two other men also appear on the grave marker. Captain John Brown (d. 1776) was John Brown’s grandfather. He was an officer in the 18th Connecticut Regiment and died during the American Revolution. Oliver Brown, a son of John Brown, died from wounds he received during the Harper’s Ferry raid.

Buttons from the clothing of John Brown’s raiders, mounted with a depiction of John Brown.

Pictured are three bone buttons acquired from the bodies of John Brown’s raiders, whose remains were reinterred at the John Brown Farm in North Elba, New York, in 1899. The image of John Brown mounted above the buttons appears to use imagery from the mural *Tragic Prelude* by John Steuart Curry, which was completed between 1938 and 1940. 

A photograph of “John Brown’s Fort,” the former engine room of the  federal arsenal at Harper’s Ferry, circa 1890.

Taken around 1890, this photograph depicts a partially boarded up building with a cannon in front.

Questions

1. Examine the [daguerreotype of John Brown](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1718). Why is Brown’s hand raised in the photograph? What might the flag in the picture represent? Read the [excerpt from John Brown’s address](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1722) to the court and explain how John Brown defends his actions during the raid on Harper’s Ferry. Do the [daguerreotype of John Brown](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1718) and the [illustration of the swivel gun and pike](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1719) support or oppose Brown’s defense of his actions? Why?
2. Examine the [print of the engine house occupied by John Brown and his raiders](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1720). What kind of activity is taking place outside of the engine house? Examine the [print depicting Brown’s raiders and hostages in the interior of the engine house](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1721). Which men are the hostages and which men are the raiders? What ideas were the artists of each image trying to convey to the audience? Based on these images, did the artist of each sketch approve or disapprove of Brown’s raid? 
3. Examine the [print showing an encounter between raiders and the militia at the railroad bridge](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1723) and explain how an antislavery American and a proslavery American might have interpreted this image differently. 
4. Read the [excerpt from George B. Cheever’s sermon](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1726). How does Cheever describe John Brown as a person? How does Cheever connect Brown’s actions to his Christian duty? According to Cheever, what is the “great lesson of this tragedy?” According to the [excerpt from Edward Everett’s speech](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1725), would he agree with Rev. Cheever? Why or why not?
5. What is the main idea of the “Dirge” printed on the [program for the commemorative town hall meeting](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1724)? According to their [speeches delivered in the US Senate](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1727) eleven days later, would Senators Clement Clay and William Gwin agree or disagree with this portrayal? How did Clay and Gwin think that Brown’s raid would affect national politics?
6. Read the lyrics of the songs entitled “[John Brown’s Body](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1728)” and “[Old John Brown: A Song for Every Southern Man](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1729).” What was the purpose of each of these songs? Who were the intended audiences for each? Can you think of any other songs written in response to newsworthy events such as John Brown’s raid?
7. Examine the [photograph of John Brown’s tombstone](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1730), the [buttons from the clothing of John Brown’s raiders](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1731), and the photograph of “[John Brown’s Fort](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1732)." What do you notice about John Brown’s grave? Why are there three names on the tombstone? Why do you think the three buttons are now artifacts in a museum? Who might have renamed the Engine Room “John Brown’s Fort”? What does each of these sources suggest about John Brown’s legacy?
8. Based on the [speeches delivered in the US Senate](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1727) and “[Old John Brown: A Song for Every Southern Man](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1729),” describe the significance of John Brown’s raid for white southerners.

Activity

1. Ask students to select a nineteenth-century abolitionist and write a letter about John Brown’s raid to the editor of an antislavery newspaper such as *The Liberator* or *Frederick Douglass’ Paper* from that person’s perspective. Choices of abolitionists might include, but are not limited to, Frederick Douglass, Harriet Tubman, Henry Highland Garnet, William Lloyd Garrison, Henry Ward Beecher, or Lucretia Mott. Students might use the [excerpt from John Brown’s address](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1722), the [program for the commemorative town hall meeting](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1724), the [excerpt from George B. Cheever’s sermon](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1726), and the [excerpt from Edward Everett’s speech](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1725) to inform their letters, but may also conduct outside research about the abolitionist of their choosing to see how they responded to John Brown’s raid.
2. Based on their analysis of the [print of the engine house occupied by John Brown and his raiders](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1720),  the [print depicting Brown’s raiders and hostages in the interior of the engine house](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1721), and the [print of an encounter between raiders and the militia at the railroad bridge](https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/john-brown-s-raid-on-harper-s-ferry/sources/1723), ask students to consider how images in newspapers might have shaped Americans’ reactions to Brown’s raid. Ask students to gather examples of documentary photographs about a topic in the news today to share with the class and discuss how the American public consumes news through images. Finally, have students take a photograph that captures an issue or current event in their community and write a caption for it. Students will present their photographs to the class and explain what they think it conveys. 

Teaching Guide: Exploring John Brown’s Raid on Harper’s Ferry

Resources

1. “[John Brown’s Day of Reckoning](https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/john-browns-day-of-reckoning-139165084/),” *Smithsonian Magazine*, October 2009.  
2. [John Brown: The Abolitionist & His Legacy](https://www.gilderlehrman.org/sites/default/files/swf/jbrown/index.html), Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. 
3. “[The Harpers Ferry 'Rising' That Hastened Civil War](https://www.npr.org/2011/10/22/141564113/the-harpers-ferry-rising-that-hastened-civil-war),” NPR, October 22, 2011. 


Overview

John Brown first made a name for himself as a militant abolitionist in 1854, when Brown traveled to Kansas following the Kansas-Nebraska Act, intent on defending the territory from the scourge of slavery. It was in “Bleeding Kansas,” named for violent conflicts between proslavery and antislavery settlers there, that John Brown led a guerilla warfare campaign against the territory’s proslavery settlers, including a deadly attack against residents of Pottawatomie Creek. By 1859, fueled by donations from wealthy abolitionists, Brown was again ready to strike a blow against slavery and slaveholders—this time in the South.

Brown’s target was the sleepy Virginia town of Harper’s Ferry (now spelled “Harpers Ferry"), where he planned to capture the stockpile of guns and ammunition at the federal arsenal. He intended to start a war between slaves and slaveholders by distributing these weapons to the enslaved. Brown believed this war would end the “peculiar institution” of slavery in the United States forever and that God approved of his plan. Accompanied by twenty-one other men, including three of Brown’s sons, and equipped with rifles and pikes, Brown and his raiders launched their attack on the night of Sunday, October 16, 1859. Some of the raiders captured local civilians as hostages, including Colonel Lewis Washington, great-grandnephew of George Washington, while others headed for the arsenal.
 
By the morning of October 17, townspeople had discovered the plot and forced Brown and his men into the arsenal’s engine room, which was where they made their last stand as local militia and US Marines attacked. By the following day, at least sixteen people, including members of Brown’s party and several townspeople, were dead and Brown and other remaining raiders were captured, imprisoned, and charged with treason and murder. Brown’s trial and subsequent execution galvanized the American public around the already profoundly contentious issue of slavery. The fallout from Brown’s raid likely hastened the secession of slaveholding states from the Union, igniting the Civil War. The primary sources in this set document John Brown’s raid and the broad range of responses it provoked across the country. 

English

John Brown's Raid on Harper’s Ferry

john-brown_13_1c2bc0f38804899c6e3b6866edde4adc.jpg

Courtesy of New York State Archives via Empire State Digital Network.

New York (State). Education Dept. Division of Visual Instruction, “Grave of John Brown in North Elba,” Digital Public Library of America, https://dp.la/item/1c2bc0f38804899c6e3b6866edde4adc. 


A photograph of John Brown’s tombstone in North Elba, New York, ca. 1900.

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Tips for Students

Item 13 of 15 in the Primary Source Set John Brown's Raid on Harper’s Ferry